Phonetics
Questions:
1. Word stress
2. Basic Intonation patterns
3. Assimilation
1. Word Stress
One or more syllable of a word, greater prominence, then the other syllables. Such syllables are called to be accented or stressed.
In English any or all of the 4 factors: loudness, pitch, sound quantity, sound quality they may render a syllable more prominent then the others.
Vowels of unstressed syllables are definitely not so long and tend to be reduced in the position.
There are 2 linguistic functions of the word stress:
· Constitutive;
· Distinctive.
Word stress arranges syllables in words, thus fulfilling the constitutive function. !!!!!
It’s distance function can be traced in the oppositions of word consisting of the same morphemes and the meaning which is differentiated by word stress.
E.g.: ‘object (n) ob’ject (v)
The degrees of word stress
IN English there are 3 degrees of word stress:
· Stressed syllables (primary stress)
· Half-stressed syllables (secondary stressed)
· Weak or unstressed syllables
A large group of simple words have both the primary and the secondary stresses.
E.g.: ,conver’sation ,organi’zation
There are several large groups of words in English with 2 equally strong stresses. These words consists of 2 morphemes. The use of the 2nd strong stress is caused by the semantic significance of both equally stressed elements of the word.
E.g.: ‘re’write ‘four’ten (,four’teen)
There are 2 tendencies of the word stress:
1. The oldest of the them is known as the recessive tendency. According to which the root syllable is stressed. So the majority of words of Germanic origin have stressed on the 1st root syllable.
E.g.: ‘clever ‘water
2. The 2nd tendency is the result of the mutual influence of Germanic and French origin. It is called rhythmic tendency, which manifests itself on stressing the 3rd syllable from the end.
E.g.: ‘situate ar’ticulate
According to both tendencies, words of 3 syllables generally have stress on the 1st syllable. Words of 4 syllables may have either recessive or rhythmic stresses.
E.g.: a’rchitect ‘criticism ‘characterize
Rhythmic stress is especially common for verbs the suffixes: -ate, -fy, -ize.
E.g.: ‘realize ‘satisfy a’ppreciate
Words with primary and secondary stress
The secondary stress is used in words with the primary stress on the 3rd or the 4th syllable from the beginning.
E.g.: ,popu’larity res,ponsi’bility
In words with the primary stress on the 3rd syllable the secondary stress usually falls on the 1st syllable.
E.g.: ,deco’ration
If the primary stress falls on the 4th or 5th syllable the secondary stress is very commonly used on the 2nd syllable.
E.g.: ex,perimen’tation
The position of the secondary stress is often that of the primary stress in the original word. That is in the word from which the derivative word is formed.
The following groups of words have 2 primary stresses. Syllables with separable prefixes have a distinct meaning of their own.
Negative prefixes:
un-,
dis-,
non-,
in-,
(ir-, il-, im)
E.g.: unknown, disappear, nonsmoker, intensive, irregular, illegal, impossible
Other prefixes:
| re- (repetition) mis- (wrong) pre- (before) ex- (former) under-, sub- | inter- (among) anti- vice- ultra- out- |
E.g.: Rewrite, misprint, prewar, ex-husband, undercharge, subtitle, interview…
Stress in compound words
Words composed of separable morphemes are called compounds. The spelling of compounds differs. They may be spelled as one word or as two separate words. Among compounds we find compound nouns, adjectives and verbs.
Words stress in compounds depends on the semantic weight of the elements. The 1st element determines the 2nd or introduces some contrast it is stressed, while the 2nd element of the compound remains unstressed, though the stressed vowel of the 2nd element retains its qualitative and quantitative significance.
This is the case with the majority of the compound nouns. They are usually stressed.
E.g.: ‘Reading-room, ‘writing-table, ‘apple-tree, ‘suitcase, ‘raincoat.
This type of word stress in compounded nouns differentiates compounds from word combinations in which every word – stressed.
E.g.: ‘Blackbird – ‘black ‘bird;
‘Blackboard – ‘black ‘board’
‘Goldfish – ‘gold ‘fish;
‘Strongbox – ‘strong ‘box.
Double stressed compound nouns are comparatively rare. In such compounds both elements are equally important.
E.g.: ‘Gas-‘stove, ‘ice-‘cream, ‘absent –‘mindedness.
Compounded adjectives have generally 2 stresses for both elements which are equally significant.
E.g.: ‘clean-‘shaven, ‘well-‘bred.
Compounded adjectives with only one stress on the 1st element occur when the 2nd element is semantically weak.
E.g.: ‘spring-like, ‘childlike.
2. Basic Intonation patterns
The information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by proper words and grammar structures but also by intonation.
Intonation is a combination of:
- variations of pitch;
- force of utterance;
- tempo ( speed rate ).
Variations of pitch are produced by significant moves of the voice up and down.
The force component of intonation is measured by the degree of loudness of syllables.
The tempo is determined by the rate of speech and length of pauses.
Intonation an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables which bears a larger or smaller degree of prominence to syllables:
û constitutive function – it forms sentences
û distinctive function – helps to distinguish communicative types of sentences: statements, questions, negative...
Each sentence consists of one or more intonation groups.
And intonation group is a word or a group of words characterized by a certain intonation pattern.
It's meaning is always complete.
Those intonation patterns that contain a number of syllables, consists of that following parts:
1. pre-head;
2. head;
3. nucleus;
4. tail.
The pre-head includes unstressed and ½-stressed syllables preceding that head.
The head consists of the stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the 1st stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable in the intonation pattern.
The nucleus is the most important part. On this syllable the voice melody changes, it goes up or down.
The tail includes the unstressed and ½-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus.
pre-head head nucleus tail
It is generally known that voice pitch or speech melody and sentence stress or accent are two main components of intonation.
Pitch level. Each intonation group has its own pitch-and-stress pattern. Variations in voice or melody occur within the normal range of the speaking voice, i.e. within the interval between its lower and upper limits. Three pitch levels are generally distinguished: Low, Medium, High.
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High Level
Mid Level
Low level
Pitch Range. Pitch range is the interval between 2 pitch levels or 2 differently pitched syllables or parts of syllable. The pitch range of a whole intonation pattern is the interval between the highest-pitched and the lowest- pitched syllables. Pitch ranges may be NORMAL, WIDE, and NARROW.
Pitch-and – Stress Sections. Pitch n’ Stress sections of an intonation Patters containing several stressed syllables are: pre-head, head, nucleus, tail.
pre-head head nucleus tail
The Head
The head in eng. Is an extremely flexible segment. It stretches from the 1st stressed syllable up to the nuclear tone. Head patterns are classified into 2 major groups:
-descending;
-ascending;
-level.
The main criterion in each group is how the head begins from the point of view of pitch movement.
Descending Heads.
In it , the voice usually moves down from a mod or high pitch level to the low one.
Stressed syllables form descending sequence. The 1st stressed syllable of the head is the highest. The following stressed syllables carry the pitch lower.
1. The syllables can move down by the steps, then the heads is called STEPPING. In the stepping head unstressed syllables are pronounced on the same note as the proceeding step.
2. The head is called FALLING when the stressed syllables also move down by the steps but intervening unstressed syllables fall down continue the descending direction.
3. There are cases when unstressed or partially stressed syllables move up, they are pronounced higher than the stressed syllables. This type of descending head is called SCANDENT
4. If the voice moves down by slides within stressed syllables, the head is called SLIDING. Unstressed or partially stressed syllables between the slides usually continue to fall.
Ascending Heads.
They are the opposite of descending ones. The 1st stressed syllable is low in the pitch, each following stressed syllable is higher than the preceding, thus the stressed syllables form an ascending sequence.
1. If the voice moves up by steps and the intervening unstressed or partially stressed syllables continue the rise, the head is called RISING.
2. If the voice moves up by slides, the head is called CLIMBING. Everything is gliding.
Level Heads.
In them, all syllables are pronounced more or less the same note of a pitch level.
1. If they happen to be on high level the head is called THE HIGH LEVEL HEAD.
2. The most frequently used type of the high head is the head with one strongly stressed syllable and unstressed or partially stressed syllables, pronounced on the same high level.
3. If the head stressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced on the mid pitch level. The head is called MID LEVEL
4. The head stressed syllable pronounced on the low pitch level constitute THE LOW PITCH LEVEL HEAD.
The tail.
Post nuclear stressed or partially stressed syllables are called THE TAIL .
There are 4 types o tail:
1. After a FALLING NUCLEUS, the tail also REMAINS LOW.
2. In case the tail occurs AFTER THE RISING NCLEUS the stressed syllable doesn’t rise in pitch and of the following unstressed syllables is a LITTLE BIT HIGHER than the previous one.
3. After the FALLING RISING TONE , THE RISE occurs on unstressed or partially stressed syllables.
4. After the MID-LEVEL NUCLEUS the tail STAYS ON THE SAME LEVEL.
Pre-Head
Unstressed or partially stressed syllables which precede the head are called the PRE-HEAD, In short intonation groups, where there is no head and these syllables precede the nucleus, they are called the PRE-NUCLEUS.
There are 2 types of pre-head or pre-nucleus:
1.LOW;-when unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced lower than the 1at stressed syllable of the head, the pre-head is called LOW
2.HIGH.-when unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced higher or on the same level as the 1st stressed syllable of the head, the pre-head is called HIGH.
The Nucleus . Types of nucleus.
The last stressed syllable of the intonation pattern on which the pitch movement changes is called the NUCLEUS. The nucleus is usually of the highest importance.
There are 8 nuclear tones in Modern English:
1. The Low (Medium) Fall – the voice falls from the low (mid) pitch level to the bottom of the pitch.
2. The High Fall – the voice falls all the way down from a high to the bottom of the pitch.
3. The Rise Fall – the voice usually rises from a mid level to a high level and then quickly falls to the bottom of the pitch.
4. The Low Rise – the voice rises from a very low to a mid level or a little higher.
5. The High (Medium) Rise – the voice rises from a mid or high level anв moves up to the top of the voice.
6. The Fall Rise – the voice 1st falls from a mid oк high level to a rather low pitch level then rises to a mid note.
7. The Rise-Fall-Rise – the voice rises from the very low level, moves up to the mid (or high) one, falls down, then quickly rises again.
8. The Mid-Level – the level maintains between high and low; the voice neither rises nor falls.
ASSIMILATION
Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.
Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to:
1.Direction
2.Degree of completeness
3. Degree of stability
Assimilation can affect the place of obstruction and the active organs of speech , the work of the vocal cords, the position of the lips, the position of the soft palate and etc.
Direction of assimilation
The influence of the neighboring sounds in English can act in a progressive, regressive or reciprocal (double)
Progressive
When some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding sound, which remains unchanged . Assimilation is called progressive
(2nd sound changes under the influence of the 1st one)
After voiced consonants sound –s- ---[z]
After voiceless consonants sound –s---[s]
Regressive
When the following sound influences the articulation of the proceeding one, assimilation is called regressive.
Reciprocal
Reciprocal or double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds.
Degree of completeness
According to it's degree assimilation can be complete and incomplete.
Complete
Is when two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one.
It always takes place when the 2 sounds differ only in one articulatory feature.
Incomplete
Is when the likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features. [w,l,r]----sonorant.
Sonorant sounds become partly devoiced after [p,t,k,s,f,Ǿ]
Degree of stability
Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the language has become obligatory in modern eng. Such changes have taken place over a period of time are called HISTORICAL.
There are a lot of non obligatory assimilation's types.( 10 minutes)
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